Which Early Childhood Method Has Been Found to Boost Reading
Introduction
The development of linguistic communication ability is i of the main challenges during early childhood and plays a major part in children'south social development. Research has shown, for example, that children with a depression level of language ability are more often rejected by their peers (e.thou. Van der Wilt et al. 2016, Van der Wilt et al. 2018). In addition, early language power is an important predictor of after success in school: Immature children with poor language ability larn to read and write in a slower step than their peers (Conti-Ramsden and Durkin 2012). It has been demonstrated that differences in children'south level of language ability often remain visible during their entire school career (Teunissen and Hacquebord 2002). The development of language ability should therefore be promoted at a immature age, and education might play an of import function in this instance (Conti-Ramsden and Durkin 2012). An effective style to promote various aspects of children'southward language ability is reading. In fact, it has been shown that young children who are often read to, take better vocabulary and early literacy skills (such as alphabetic knowledge and phonological sensitivity) than children who are less oft read to (for meta-analyses, see Mol and Omnibus 2011; Mol, Charabanc, and de Jong 2009). Building on this trunk of research, the present exploratory study examined the effects of three interactive reading approaches on children'southward language ability in early babyhood pedagogy.
Language power is a complex and multifaceted concept. It consists of different, interrelated aspects that enable a kid to gain knowledge and communicate with others (Conti-Ramsden and Durkin 2012). In the current study, the following aspects of language ability were taken into account: productive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, listening comprehension skills, and narrative skills. Previous research has demonstrated that all four linguistic communication aspects are related to reading. First, it has been argued that reading contributes to the development of (both productive and receptive) vocabulary, because information technology enables children to derive the significant of new words from the context of the text (Cain, Oakhill, and Elbro 2003). Indeed, research has shown that young children who are often read to have better developed vocabulary skills (DeTemple and Snow 2003; Mol, Double-decker, and de Jong 2009). 2d, information technology has been demonstrated that reading to young children positively contributes to the evolution of listening comprehension skills, which, in turn, contributes to afterwards reading skills (Sénéchal and LeFevre 2002; Snow 2002). Finally, Lever and Sénéchal (2011) investigated the effect of dialogic reading, a shared reading activeness that involves elaborative questioning techniques. Besides gains in productive vocabulary, results indicated that the dialogic reading intervention significantly enhanced children'southward narrative skills (Lever and Sénéchal 2011; run across too O'Neill, Pearce, and Pick 2004; Snowfall et al. 2007).
The current study was specifically focused on early on babyhood education. In early childhood education, shared book reading is an important activity (Coach, Van IJzendoorn, and Pellegrini 1995; Mol et al. 2008). Reading books and stories together can be benign from multiple perspectives. It allows children, for example, to learn most the structure of books: Books incorporate characters and locations, and near of them are about a sure problem. Shared volume reading likewise teaches children how to appoint with books and makes them aware of letter-audio relations, which are foundational to learning to read (Lonigan and Whitehurst 1998; Sulzby 1985; Zucker, Ward, and Justice 2009). In addition, it provides children the opportunity to aggrandize their knowledge, as books draw situations, places, people, problems, and feelings that children have not (yet) encountered or experienced themselves (Gosen 2012; Hayes and Ahrens 1988). Movie books are highly suitable for shared reading, because of their clear story-lines and stiff plots. As children in early babyhood teaching do not even so read or write conventionally, pictures are of major importance for the understanding of a story. In fact, combining exact or written information with pictures might exist crucial in acquiring a coherent and complete moving-picture show of a text or story (De Koning and van der Schoot 2013). This is in line with the dual coding theory, stating that information is ameliorate remembered when information technology is presented both visually and verbally (Paivio 1991).
In early on childhood education, the promotion of linguistic communication ability is increasingly becoming an interactive process of meaning making. An important assumption behind interactive linguistic communication teaching is the idea that linguistic communication in itself is interaction (Elsäcker et al. 2009; see also Rivers 1987). Shared book reading is a well-known example of an activity that has become more and more interactive. Nowadays, the nearly popular shared reading method is called interactive book reading (Ghonem-Woets 2008; Milburn et al. 2014; Mol, Bus, and de Jong 2009). Compared to passive volume reading, interactive book reading requires children to adopt a more than active role every bit, for example, the teacher asks children story-related questions and encourages them to respond to the story (Mol, Bus, and de Jong 2009; Mol et al. 2008). Especially open up questions allow children to talk about their own ideas and experiences in relation to the story. Information technology is through challenging conversations that children become inspired to engage in a story. Inquiry has shown that interactive reading is a valuable reading method as it promotes the language development of immature children, and the interactions during shared picture volume reading are important predictors of children'southward further language development (Droop et al. 2005; Mol et al. 2008; Sulzby and Teale 2003).
A relatively contempo development in teaching that builds on the theory about visualization (Paivio 1991) is the use of mindmaps. A mindmap can be seen every bit a particular blazon of graphic organizer. Graphic organizers are tools that readers tin use to organize information in a text in a systematic manner by using lines, arrows, and pictures (Kim et al. 2004; meet also Ilter 2016). Graphic organizers are useful in making meaningful relations betwixt important concepts in a story and in visually presenting the story in a clear manner (Birbili 2006; Darch and Eaves 1986). By using a mindmap, students are more actively engaged in their own learning process (Edwards and Cooper 2010). As well, Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) showed that the apply of mindmaps tin can have a positive effect on learning outcomes: Second and third year medical students who used mindmaps while they learned for their exams knew more about the subject matter than students who did not utilise mindmaps. In addition, the study of Ilter (2016) indicated that the employ of graphic organizers improved 4th-graders' word recognition. The review of Kim et al. (2004) likewise showed that graphic organizers in general tin have a positive influence on the learning outcomes of students with learning disabilities, because the utilize of graphic organizers enhanced their reading comprehension. Finally, in research of Carney and Levin (2002) and Vekiri (2002) it was demonstrated that information that was presented in text and pictures was effective with regard to students' learning from texts and graphics.
But how can mindmaps be used in the context of (early on babyhood) teaching? To this end, Tony Buzan (2003) developed an approach in which mindmaps can exist used in social club to understand a text. Specifically, the main discipline of a text is placed in the heart of a folio. From there, lines are fatigued to stand for an important concept. Each line can be subdivided into smaller lines, representing sub concepts. Based on the work of Buzan, Dutch pre-school teacher Rianne Hofma adult an approach to use mindmaps with children anile four–6 years (Hofma and van der Veen 2015). This approach consists of multiple reading sessions in which 4 specific questions are asked by the teacher to focus children's attention on specific aspects of the story. Each session focusses on one question and later one of the branches of the mindmap is constructed. The specific questions are 'Who is this story about?' (the 'who-branch'), 'Where does this story have identify?' (the 'where-co-operative'), 'What is the main problem in this story?'(the 'problem-branch'), and 'What is the solution?' ('solution-co-operative'). The questions are in line with the structure of well-nigh stories. That is, stories are oftentimes focused on specific characters, one or more locations and a master problem with a related solution (Lever and Sénéchal 2011). The questions regarding bug and solutions are likely to be more difficult than the ii preceding questions as they require children to interpret and connect different events and make inferences from the story. Past asking these four specific questions, children can focus on one aspect of the story and clarify the structure of the story for themselves (Michaels and Cazden 1986).
Prior inquiry into the upshot of mindmaps focusing on students in higher grades of elementary schoolhouse, high school, or higher didactics has shown that the employ of mindmaps or graphic organizers in general has a positive effect on children'south comprehension of a text (Kim et al. 2004; Merchie and Van Keer 2016). Still, then far, no studies accept examined the effect of using mindmaps on young children's language ability and story comprehension. In the present study, we explored the possibilities and effectiveness of using mindmaps during interactive reading on children's language power in early childhood education. Every bit young children cannot yet read conventional print, a combination of pictures and words was used to enable children to read the mindmap on their own. In order to explore the use and effectiveness of mindmaps on dissimilar aspects of language ability, the present study compared the effect of 3 interactive book reading approaches: (one) traditional interactive reading, (2) interactive reading with focused attending, and (iii) interactive reading using a mindmap. Based on the effectiveness of graphic organizers in older children, the hypothesis was that using mindmaps during interactive reading would exist more than effective in improving children'south language ability than the other two reading approaches.
Method
Ethical considerations
The present study was part of a larger research projection into the issue of several shared reading approaches, including the use of mindmaps, in early on babyhood education (Boerma et al. in preparation.). For the consummate research project, approval was obtained from the Permanent Committee of Science and Ethic of the Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Scienes, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Prior to the study, teachers who agreed to participate were informed about the purpose and the procedures of the research. Active informed consent was asked from children's parents. For the electric current exploratory study, all parents gave consent to participate. In addition, participation remained completely voluntary and children could indicate at whatsoever moment that they wanted to stop participating in the study (although none of them did). All data sampled during the study were carefully and anonymously processed and saved. Furthermore, data were only used for enquiry purposes and not distributed to others. No names of schools, children, or teachers were used in publications and presentations.
Participants
The full sample consisted of North = 73 children (42 boys and 31 girls) with anile between 3.58 and six.17 years (M = 5.06, SD = 0.59). Children came from three early babyhood pedagogy classrooms: Course one (n = 28), Grade ii (north = xx), and Form 3 (n = 25). Class 2 was situated at a primary school in an urban part of kingdom of the netherlands. The other two classes were from the same primary school in a rural part of the Netherlands. Classes were assigned to one of the three reading approaches: Course 1 to the traditional interactive reading approach, Course 2 to the interactive reading with focused attention approach, and Class 3 to the interactive reading using a mindmap approach. Tabular array 1 shows the sample characteristics for each reading arroyo separately.
Table i. Sample characteristics by reading approach.
Process
In each grade, the aforementioned picture book was read three times (in one case a week for three weeks). The picture book selected for the present study is chosen 'The Black Rabbit' (Leathers 2013). The manner in which this volume was read depended on the reading approach to which the class was assigned. The reading approaches were practical by the children's ain teacher who followed the instructions described in the detailed manual as closely as possible. The three reading approaches are shortly described below. Table 2 shows the activities carried out in each reading approach. Different aspects of language ability were measured before and subsequently the intervention period.
Table 2. Clarification of activities of the iii reading approaches.
Traditional interactive reading. In the traditional interactive reading approach, the accent was on asking questions before, during, and after reading the book. The manner in which the book was read was very interactive: Children could interrupt whenever they wanted. The offset time the book was read, the focus was on predictions almost the story. The second time, the teacher asked children to concentrate on difficult words and encouraged them to ask questions about important concepts. The last time the book was read, the teacher talked with the children about the feelings of the main characters.
Interactive reading with focused attention. In the interactive reading with focused attending approach, each time 1 specific question was asked earlier reading the book. The way in which the book was read was quite strict as the story was interrupted as fiddling as possible. Before reading the book for the first time, the instructor asked children to concentrate on the characters: 'Who is this volume about?'. The second time, children were encouraged to focus on the locations: 'Where does the story have identify?'. The final time, children were asked two specific questions: 'What are the main problems and how are they solved?'.
Interactive reading using a mindmap. In the interactive reading using a mindmap approach, the instructor asked the same specific questions before reading the volume as in the interactive reading with focused attention approach. In addition to these questions, parts of a mindmap were constructed. After reading the book for the first fourth dimension, the starting time branch of the mindmap was made: the 'who-co-operative'. The second time, the teacher and children created the second branch: the 'where-branch'. Finally, after reading the book for the third time, the mindmap was completed by calculation the 'problem-co-operative' and the 'solution-branch'. An instance of a mindmap that was synthetic in this study, is shown in Effigy 1.
The event of three interactive reading approaches on language power: an exploratory study in early babyhood teaching
Published online:
27 June 2019
Effigy i. An example of a mindmap used in the context of the current study.
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Measures
Productive vocabulary. Children's productive vocabulary was measured using the thematic vocabulary assessment exam (TVAT), a self-developed thematic vocabulary exam (run into Adan-Dirks 2012; van der Veen, Dobber, and van Oers 2016). This test consisted of 15 words and expressions selected from the picture book 'The Black Rabbit' (Leathers 2013). Test administrations were individually conducted by trained test administration and children were asked to verbally explicate the significant of each give-and-take. For example, one detail goes every bit follows: 'What is loneliness?' If the child provided a vague or incomplete response, the test assistant encouraged the kid to analyze: 'Have you heard this give-and-take before? What practice you remember it is about?' The test administration took approximately x minutes. In scoring the test, children received one point for each correct description. Total scores were calculated by summing the number of correct items, so scores could range from 0 to 15. The reliability of the test was – depending on the measurement occasion – low or acceptable (Cronbach'south Alpha = 0.57 for the pretest and Cronbach'due south Alpha = 0.70 for the posttest).
Receptive vocabulary. Children's receptive vocabulary was measured with the Dutch version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – III (Schlichting 2005). The test consists of a motion-picture show book with 204 items (17 sets of 12 items), each containing four black-and-white drawings. The so-chosen starting fix depends on the participant's age and the concluding set is the set up in which the participant makes nine or more than errors. In the nowadays study, children were individually tested past a trained test assistant. Each fourth dimension, the examination assistant read a word aloud and asked the child to point to one of the four pictures that suited the give-and-take best. For example, one item goes equally follows: 'Could you bespeak to the moving picture of a person who is laughing?' In this case, participants could choose among pictures of a person who is crying, who is drinking tea, who is looking shocked, and who is laughing. The total administration of the test took approximately ten minutes. A raw score was calculated past subtracting the total number of errors from the last completed particular number. A standardized score, the Word Comprehension Quotient (WCQ), was obtained based on this raw score using a table providing age-corrected normative scores. Previous inquiry into the reliability of the test has indicated that its internal consistency is good (average Guttman's Lambda-2 coefficient of .93 for children anile 4–vii years; Schlichting 2005).
Listening comprehension skills. The subscale Disquisitional Listening of the Cito Linguistic communication for Preschoolers was used to assess children's listening comprehension skills (Lansink 2009). The Cito Language for preschoolers is a standardized test for language cess in early childhood education and contains several subscales (Lansink 2009). The complete test consists of ii versions: a test with 48 items for four-to-5-year-olds and a examination with 60 items for 5-to-6-year-olds. In the electric current study, 8 items of each version of the subscale Disquisitional Listening were randomly selected. Ane set up was used as a pretest and the other set was used as a posttest. The test was plenary administered by the children'southward ain instructor. Each time, the teacher read a sentence aloud and children were required to draw a line under the respective picture on their answer sheet. For instance: 'Loes sits on the dorsum of dad'due south wheel. Draw a line nether that movie'. Children's answers were dichotomously scored (ane point for a right reply, 0 points for an wrong answer). Total scores were calculated by summing the number of correct items. Therefore, scores could range from 0 to 8. Previous research indicated that the exam is reliable (Cronbach's Blastoff of 0.87; Driessen 2016). Even so, in the electric current written report a Cronbach's Blastoff of 0.37 was found for the prestest and a Cronbach's Blastoff of 0.35 was found for the posttest. This might exist explained past the small-scale number of selected items that was used in this study.
Narrative skills. Narrative skills were assessed using the subscale Narrative Task of the Cito Language Test for All Children. This subscale measures the verbal abilities of children aged iv–9 and has two versions (Verhoeven and Vermeer 2006). In the present written report, one version was used as a pretest and the other version was used equally a posttest. The test was individually administered by a testassistent. During the test administrations, children were asked to tell a story based on a series of pictures that was led in front of them. They were first immune to look carefully at the pictures and were subsequently asked to tell the corresponding story in such a way that someone who could not run across the pictures could still empathize it. Children's stories were recorded using a phonation recorder and were analyzed afterwards by scoring sixteen items, each describing an aspect of the story (eastward.g. 'The balloon flies away'). Each item was scored with a 0 or a i, depending on whether the answer was correct or not. This immune the scores to range betwixt 0 and xvi. The examination has been found to be reliable with a Cronbach's Alfa of 0.90 (Verhoeven and Vermeer 2006), although a lower Cronbach's Alpha of 0.67 was found in the electric current study.
Analyses
Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS), version 24. With regard to the pre-tests, 10.seven% of the values were missing. In addition, 13.4% of the data on the posttests were missing. Missing data were imputed for both pre- and posttests after finding no statistically reliable difference from randomness (Lilliputian's MCAR test, Ten 2(twoscore) = 48.10, p = .178 and Petty's MCAR test, X 2(137) = 116.63, p = .896, respectively). The imputed dataset was used in subsequent analyses. Normality assumptions were checked. Although Shapiro Wilks Normality tests indicated most variables (both on the pre- and posttest) significantly deviated from a normal distribution, visual inspection of Q-Q plots indicated that our data followed a normal distribution. Nonetheless, outcomes of our analyses should exist carefully interpreted.
In gild to investigate whether the different aspects of linguistic communication power were interrelated and whether age was related to these aspects, Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients (r) were calculated. In improver, in order to examine whether the three reading approaches differed in their issue on the different aspects of linguistic communication ability, mixed betwixt-within analyses of variance were conducted. Given the relatively small sample size and significant results from the Shapiro Wilks Normality tests, analyses were also performed using not-parametric tests (i.e. Spearman Rank Order Correlations). As these analyses yielded the same results, they are not reported hither.
Results
Preliminary analyses
In Table 3, the means and standard deviations of pre- and posttest scores for each main variable are displayed.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the dependent variables divided by reading approach.
Outcomes of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients indicated that most of the aspects of language ability were intercorrelated (Table 4). All the same, on both pre- and posttest, no correlation was found between receptive vocabulary and narrative skills. In addition, no relation was constitute between listening comprehension skills and narrative skills on the posttest. On pre- and posttests, age was positively related to productive vocabulary and narrative skills: Older children scored higher on these skills than younger children. Still, no relationship was found between age and receptive vocabulary and between age and listening skills. The fact that both aspects were measured with an age sensitive test could explain the absence of a relationship between these variables.
Tabular array 4. Pearson correlations between different aspects of language ability and age.
Differences between interactive reading approaches in their effect on linguistic communication power
Mixed between-within subjects analyses of variance were conducted to investigate the difference in effect between iii reading approaches on unlike aspects of language ability. A ii × 3 design was defined with pre- and posttest as within-cistron and the three reading approaches every bit between-cistron (Tabular array five). For all language aspects, the interaction issue between the within and the betwixt factor was not significant. This indicates that the event of the three reading approaches on language ability did not differ. The between field of study furnishings were also non-significant. This indicates that the scores on the posttest of language power did non differ between the three reading approaches. There was a significant effect of the within subject on productive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and on listening comprehension skills: children scored significantly higher on these posttests than on these pretests. The within bailiwick effect on narrative skills was not significant: children did not score higher on this posttest than on the pretest.
Table 5. Interaction effects, inside-, and between subjects effects for main variables.
Give-and-take
In this exploratory study, the upshot of three reading approaches on several aspects of language power of young children was investigated. Outcomes indicated that there was no difference between the three reading approaches in their outcome on language ability. This upshot is not in line with our expectation that interactive reading using a mindmap would be more constructive than the other 2 reading approaches.
Despite the fact that the three reading conditions did not differ in their issue on language power, some interesting outcomes were found with regard to the issue of these reading approaches. Specifically, 3 out of four aspects of language power, measured in the present study, were significantly improved: Children obtained higher scores on the posttests compared to the pretests. This was the case for productive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and narrative skills. With regard to productive vocabulary, the thematic vocabulary test consisted of xv words that were chosen from the movie book 'The Black Rabbit' (Leathers 2013), the volume that was read during the intervention menstruum. The comeback on this test can be explained by the specific arroyo regarding vocabulary teaching: The words of the picture volume were consistently and ofttimes presented and discussed during the volume reading activities. This shows that semantizing (clarifying meanings) and consolidating (repeating) words are important strategies for vocabulary teaching. This is consistent with research into vocabulary teaching methods (e.g. Henderson, Weighall, and Gaskell 2013; Verhallen 2010). For example, research has shown that a specific arroyo with attention to the pregnant of words is important (Verhallen 2010). It is important that children understand the pregnant of words and can use words in a meaningful context. If words are meaningful for children, they volition remember them better (see likewise Van Oers and Duijkers 2013).
Too productive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary improved besides. Although research has shown that immature children who are read to, know a larger corporeality of words and larn how to derive the meaning of words based on the story context (i.e. Cain, Oakhill, and Elbro 2003; Mol, Bus, and de Jong 2009), it is rather surprising that this could exist achieved in such a short-term intervention. This is especially surprising because the words that were assessed past the test to mensurate receptive vocabulary were completely unrelated to the content of the intervention. Finally, listening comprehension skills were significantly improved over time. This is in line with research demonstrating that shared reading has positive effects on listening skills (east.thou. Freed 2017; Isbell 2004). Research of Freed (2017) showed that request questions before, during, or after reading results in improvements in listening comprehension skills. Peculiarly request questions during reading seems to be effective in the case of young children (Freed 2017). In all three reading approaches, story-related questions were asked well-nigh the story. For example, in the interactive reading with focused attention approach and interactive reading using a mindmap approach, children's attention was focused on a specific part of the story by request questions before reading the book. In improver, in the traditional interactive reading arroyo, children were asked questions about the story also. Interestingly, the listening comprehension test that was used did not resemble the dissimilar reading approaches; Children significantly improved on this test independent of reading approach. This might suggest that children were able to apply what they had learned during the intervention in a new situation (i.eastward., the test).
In contrast to the aforementioned aspects of linguistic communication ability, narrative skills were not significantly improved later on the intervention period. An explanation might exist that the test was as well dissimilar from what had happened during the intervention catamenia. During the exam administration of narrative skills, children were required to tell a story based on a series of pictures. These pictures were non at all related to the picture show book 'The Black Rabbit'. In improver, the ability to tell a story based on pictures was not practiced during the intervention menses. This might explicate why these scores did not increase. In fact, inquiry has shown that in order to assess the development in linguistic communication ability, it is important to stay equally close as possible to the regular situation in which the child uses language (Adan-Dirks 2012).
A possible caption for the fact that no differences were found between the three reading approaches in their effect on language ability might be establish in the instruction manuals. Teachers were asked to follow these manuals advisedly, but when we take a closer look at these manuals, 1 could question whether the manuals of the three different reading approaches differed sufficiently from one some other. For example, in both the interactive reading with focused attention approach as well as in the interactive reading using a mindmap approach, the aforementioned specific questions were asked before reading the picture book. In addition, every bit the interactive book reading approach encouraged interaction betwixt instructor and children, it is possible that similar questions were asked in the interactive reading approach as well. Furthermore, each reading approach paid a lot of attention to the pictures in the picture book. The similarities betwixt the reading approaches might explain why the approaches did not differ in their event on language power.
The current written report had several limitations that need to be addressed. One limitation concerns the sample size. Participating classes were assigned to iii reading approaches, merely each reading arroyo consisted of only i class. In improver, the number of schools was limited as simply ii schools participated. The sample was, therefore, insufficiently diverse and our study underpowered. Future inquiry should, therefore, contain a larger, randomly selected, and more heterogeneous sample. A second limitation is the low reliability (Cronbach'southward Alpha) of some of the tests that were used in the nowadays written report and the possibility of test-retest furnishings. Future studies are encouraged to consider more than reliable tests and include unlike versions of tests to avert a possible learning effect. A tertiary limitation regards the elapsing of the intervention period: A four-week-period might be too short to detect meaningful differences between reading approaches in their effect on children'southward language ability. Slavin (2008), for example, argues that interventions with a curt duration are by and large low in external validity. Furthermore, teachers are by and large not familiar with interactive reading using mindmaps and need a sufficient amount of time to adopt this new approach. Therefore, future studies could adopt a longitudinal blueprint to signal whether the utilise of mindmaps adds to the effectiveness of interactive volume reading, with enough time (both in span of fourth dimension and hours spend on profession development) for teachers' professional development (Van Veen, Zwart, and Meirink 2012). Given the exploratory nature of the current study and the same limitations, the results of this study should exist interpreted with caution. However, this study does provide some interesting insights that are useful for designing future studies and are informative for early childhood teachers that desire to make their book reading activities more interactive.
To conclude, the present study indicated that iii unlike reading approaches were effective in improving several aspects of language ability, namely productive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and listening comprehension skills. This indicates the importance of interactive reading in early on childhood education and supports teachers that adopt shared volume reading in their classroom. Future research, including a longer intervention menstruum and a larger sample, can investigate whether the use of mindmaps (and/or or book reading with focused attention) adds to the effectiveness of interactive book reading on linguistic communication ability. Such outcomes can meliorate recent developments in early on babyhood educational activity that focus on interactive and meaningful education. Finally, the different interactive reading approaches used in the current study can exist adopted by early childhood teachers in society to brand their book reading activities more than dialogic, interactive, diversified, and challenging.
Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1350293X.2019.1634242
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